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Saturday, December 13, 2008

indian freedom fighters

India's Supreme Court has hit out at people falsely claiming to have fought for the country's independence from Britain, describing them as traitors. The court's comments came while hearing a petition alleging that a large number of people were fraudulently enjoying benefits as freedom fighters.

It asked the government to deal sternly with those found guilty. India gained independence from British rule in 1947 and those who fought for freedom enjoy special privileges. It has been established that people who were not even born when the freedom fight was on... have applied for and managed to get pensions and other benefits"
Justice Arijit Pasayat But a petition being heard on Wednesday alleged that in a district in Maharashtra state a large number of people had been falsely granted the status of freedom fighters and were earning a state pension.

Justice Arijit Pasayat said such people caused disrespect to the country.
He said freedom fighters evoked the image of a person who had suffered mentally and physically in unshackling the chains of foreign rule. The normal reaction when one sees such person is of reverence, regard and respect. But he added that these images were shattered by those who lay false claims for financial gain.

It is a sad reflection on the moral values of the citizens of our country that a large number of cases have surfaced where it has been established that people who were not even born when the freedom fight was on or the country got independence or were toddlers have applied for and managed to get pensions and other benefits, the judge said. The Supreme Court also appointed a one-man inquiry commission to investigate 354 suspect claims of benefits in Maharashtra state. It gave the commission four months to complete its inquiry and submit its report to the state government for necessary action.

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1.indian freedom fighters India's Supreme Court has hit out at people falsely claiming to have fought for the country's independence from Britain, describing them as traitors. The court's comments came while hearing a petition alleging that a large number of people were fraudulently enjoying benefits as freedom fighters. It asked the government to deal sternly with those found guilty. India gained independence from British rule in 1947 and those who fought for freedom enjoy special privileges. It has been established that people who were not even born when the freedom fight was on... have applied for and managed to get pensions and other benefits" Justice Arijit Pasayat But a petition being heard on Wednesday alleged that in a district in Maharashtra state a large number of people had been falsely granted the status of freedom fighters and were earning a state pension. Justice Arijit Pasayat said such people caused disrespect to the country. He said freedom fighters evoked the image of a person who had suffered mentally and physically in unshackling the chains of foreign rule. The normal reaction when one sees such person is of reverence, regard and respect. But he added that these images were shattered by those who lay false claims for financial gain. It is a sad reflection on the moral values of the citizens of our country that a large number of cases have surfaced where it has been established that people who were not even born when the freedom fight was on or the country got independence or were toddlers have applied for and managed to get pensions and other benefits, the judge said. The Supreme Court also appointed a one-man inquiry commission to investigate 354 suspect claims of benefits in Maharashtra state. It gave the commission four months to complete its inquiry and submit its report to the state government for necessary action. 2. ABOUT TELEVISION The television has become such an integral part of homes in the modern world that it is hard to imagine life without television. The boob tube, as television is also referred to, provides entertainment to people of all ages. Not just for entertainment value, but TV is also a valuable resource for advertising and different kinds of programming. The television as we see it and know it today was not always this way. Let’s take a brief look at the history of television and how it came into being Different experiments by various people, in the field of electricity and radio, led to the development of basic technologies and ideas that laid the foundation for the invention of television. In the late 1800s, Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, a student in Germany, developed the first ever mechanical module of television. He succeeded in sending images through wires with the help of a rotating metal disk. This technology was called the ‘electric telescope’ that had 18 lines of resolution. Around 1907, two separate inventors, A.A. Campbell-Swinton from England and Russian scientist Boris Rosing, used the cathode ray tube in addition to the mechanical scanner system, to create a new television system. From the experiments of Nipkow and Rosing, two types of television systems came into existence: mechanical television and electronic television 3. ABOUT MAHATMA GANDHIJI Was an revolutionary spiritual leader World of Sociology on Mohandas Karamchand Gandhiwho used his influence for political and social reform. Although he held no governmental office, he was the prime mover in the struggle for India's independence. Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, a seacoast town north of Bombay. His wealthy family was of the Vaisya, or merchant, caste. He was the fourth child of Karamchand Gandhi, prime minister to the raja of three small city-states. Mohandas was married at thirteen by parental arrangement to a girl his own age, Kasturbai. Leaving his wife, Gandhi went to England to study in 1888. In England he studied law but never completely adjusted to English lifestyle. He passed the bar on June 10, 1891, and sailed for Bombay. He attempted unsuccessfully to practice law in Rajkot and Bombay, then for a brief period served as lawyer for the prince of Porbandar. In 1893 Gandhi represented a Moslem firm in Pretoria, capital of Transvaal in the Union of South Africa. A train incident in which he was asked by a white man to leave first-class seating led Gandhi to his work eradicating race prejudice, a cause that kept him in South Africa until 1914. Shortly after the train incident he called his first meeting of Indians in Pretoria and attacked racial discrimination. Gandhi decided to buy a farm in Natal and return to a simpler life. He began to fast and in 1906 he became celibate after having fathered four sons. He also began to live a life of voluntary poverty. During this period Gandhi developed the concept of soul force, what he called "a quiet and irresistible pursuit of truth." Truth was Gandhi's chief concern, as reflected in the subtitle of his Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth . Truth for Gandhi was a principle which had to be discovered experimentally in each situation. Gandhi also felt the means necessarily shaped the ends. In 1907 Gandhi urged all Indians in South Africa to defy a law requiring their registration and fingerprinting. He read Thoreau's essay "Civil Disobedience," which left a deep impression on him. He was influenced also by his correspondence with Leo Tolstoy in 1909-1910 and by John Ruskin's Unto This Last. By this time Gandhi had abandoned Western dress for Indian garb. By the time he returned to India in 1915 Gandhi had become known as "Mahatmaji." Gandhi knew how to reach the masses and insisted on their resistance and spiritual regeneration. He spoke of a new, free Indian individual. He said India's shackles were self-made. Gandhi urged Indians to spin their own clothing rather than buy British goods. Spinning would create employment during the many annual idle months for millions of Indian peasants. He cherished the ideal of economic independence and identified industrialization with materialism. Prisoner’s released, salt manufacture permitted on the coast, and Congress would attend the Second Round Table Conference in London. In March 1947 the last viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, arrived in India charged with taking Britain out of India by June 1948. Gandhi, despairing because his nation was not responding to his plea for peace and brotherhood, refused to participate in the independence celebrations on August 15, 1947. On September 1, 1947, after a Hindu mob broke into the home where he was staying in Calcutta, Gandhi began to fast which led to Hindu and Moslem leaders promising no more killings. On January 13, 1948, Gandhi began his last fast in Delhi, praying for Indian unity. On January 30, as he was attending prayers, he was shot and killed by Nathuram Godse, a 35-year old editor of a Hindu Mahasabha extremist weekly in Poona. 4. SOLAR SYSTEM Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun, the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. It includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets, asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium. The Sun is the richest source of electromagnetic energy (mostly in the form of heat and light) in the solar system. The Sun's nearest known stellar neighbor is a red dwarf star called Proxima Centauri, at a distance of 4.3 light years away. The whole solar system, together with the local stars visible on a clear night, orbits the center of our home galaxy, a spiral disk of 200 billion stars we call the Milky Way. The Milky Way has two small galaxies orbiting it nearby, which are visible from the southern hemisphere. They are called the Large Magellanic Cloud and the Small Magellanic Cloud. The nearest large galaxy is the Andromeda Galaxy. It is a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way but is 4 times as massive and is 2 million light years away. Our galaxy, one of billions of galaxies known, is traveling through intergalactic space. The planets, most of the satellites of the planets and the asteroids revolve around the Sun in the same direction, in nearly circular orbits. When looking down from above the Sun's north pole, the planets orbit in a counter-clockwise direction. The planets orbit the Sun in or near the same plane, called the ecliptic. Pluto is a special case in that its orbit is the most highly inclined (18 degrees) and the most highly elliptical of all the planets. Because of this, for part of its orbit, Pluto is closer to the Sun than is Neptune. The axis of rotation for most of the planets is nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic. The exceptions are Uranus and Pluto, which are tipped on their sides. 5.. About Hotels in India Given the glut of diversity and the rich heritage, points of interest and so on, India got to be in the priority list of travelers and visitors alike. Being a dream destination for the rovers Indian ness has got a boost subsequently. Things got revamped especially hotels in India. Hotels in India with the best possible facelift have come out to mitigate the lavish and frugal requirements of visitors from across the world. Luxury hotels in India are found replete with all the amenities and facilities of a model hotel. There is chunk number of luxury hotels in New Delhi, India offering best accommodation services to travelers from across the globe. Hotels in Mumbai or hotels in Chennai are just the right locations for comforts, luxury and ambience. The differing experience of Hotels in Bangalore, Chennai or hotels in New Delhi, India lies in the level of standard and quality rendition catering to the varying tastes of clients at competitive prices. However, hotels in India have served the varying requirements and tastes of peoples from different countries with variety of cuisines like Thai, Chinese and world class facilities. Hotels in Delhi, India being in the capital city always vie to forward best possible accommodations and above all an experience which is different. GAO Hotel Mumbai Hotel Delhi. 6. Indian Airlines Following the enactment of Air Corporations Act 1953, Indian airlines began its operation on 1st August, 1953 to offer adequate, efficient, safe and economical air services. Indian Airlines today, together with its fully owned subsidiary Alliance Air, has a fleet of 70 aircrafts. Indian Airlines has set standards for civil aviation in India. With many first in its credit, Indian Airlines has been feeding both the lavish and economical requirements of passengers across the globe. When it comes to Indian domestic airline, Indian Airline reigns supreme. You can easily avail online booking system for a travel to any key destination like Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Goa, etc. Over the years, Indian Airline has become synonymous with service, reliability and efficiency. Indian Airlines covers 76 destinations, 58 within India and 18 destinations abroad. It’s international network spans Oman, Kuwait, UAE, Qatar and Bahrain in West Asia; Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia and Mayanmar in South East Asia and Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Maldives in the South Asia sub-continent.Indian Airlines renders services which are commendable and rather unmatched in terms of technology, pricing and so on. For Cheap Domestic airfare and great deal on domestic air tickets including popular sectors like New Delhi-Bangalore-New Delhi, Mumbai-Bangalore-Mumbai, New Delhi-Mumbai-New Delhi, Bangalore-New Delhi-Bangalore, Mumbai-Goa-Mumbai, Delhi-Goa-Delhi, Bangalore-Hyderabad-Bangalore and more, book your travel on Indian Airlines. ABOUT NAVARATHRI FESTIVAL Navratri, the festival of nights, lasts for 9 days with three days each devoted to worship of Ma Durga, the Goddess of Valor, Ma Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth and Ma Saraswati, the Goddess of Knowledge. During the nine days of Navratri, feasting and fasting take precedence over all normal daily activities amongst the Hindus. Evenings give rise to the religious dances in order to worhip Goddess Durga Maa. On the first day of the Navaratras, a small bed of mud is prepared in the puja room of the house and barley seeds are sown on it. On the tenth day, the shoots are about 3 - 5 inches in length. After the puja, these seedlings are pulled out and given to devotees as a blessing from god. These initial days are dedicated to Durga Maa, the Goddess of power and energy. Her various manifestations, Kumari, Parvati and Kali are all worshipped during these days. They represent the three different classes of womanhood that include the child, the young girl and the mature woman. During these days, Lakshmi Maa, the Goddess of peace and prosperity is worshipped. On the fifth day which is known as Lalita Panchami, it is traditional, to gather and display all literature available in the house, light a lamp or 'diya' to invoke Saraswati Maa, the Goddess of knowledge and art.These final days belong to Saraswati Maa who is worshipped to acquire the spiritual knowledge. This in turn will free us from all earthly bondage. But on the 8th day of this colourful festival, yagna (holy fire) is performed. Ghee (clarified butter), kheer (rice pudding) and sesame seeds form the holy offering to Goddess Durga Maa. The festival of Navratri culminates in Mahanavami. On this day Kanya Puja is performed. Nine young girls representing the nine forms of Goddess Durga are worshiped. Their feet are washed as a mark of respect for the Goddess and then they are offered new clothes as gifts by the worshiper. This ritual is performed in most parts of the country. The most characteristic dances of Gujarat during Navratri are the Rasa and Garba dances which are performed at all levels of society by men and women.The origin of the Rasa is traced back to the legends connected with the life of Lord Krishna. It is essentially associated with the agricultural rites. The Rasa is performed in Gujarat India on Navaratra; and other important festivals associated with harvest and crops. The Rasa dances of Saurashtra are closely related to agricultural functions and are for the best part grain-ritual dances. The dancers of each concentric circle then weave patterns with each other and with members of the other circle. There is a great deal of freedom in the movements and sticks are beaten in standing, sitting or lying position. Occasionally, the men weave patterns of an intertwined rope in a circle; they lie on the floor with the two sticks being beaten above their heads and chests; sometimes instead of hands, the feet hold and strike the sticks. The Dandiya Rasa is obviously of ancient origin and of ritual significance. From what one can gather from Sanskrit dramas, it became in course of time a popular, and is mentioned in Rajshekhar's Karpur Manjari 8. History of Trains At first, trains carried freight only.In 1825 the Stockton and Darlington Railway in England started to operate regular services for passengers.George Stephenson designed a steam locomotive called "Locomotion" to pull passenger cars. On September 27th,1825 the locomotive to pull a special train to mark the first steam-hauled public railroadTom Thumb, built in 1829 first ran in 1830 on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad to Ellicots Mill, Maryland. This was the first public railroad in the United States.More trains meant more locomotives.The Orient Express is the worlds most famous train.The largest trains ever built were "Big Boys."They were in service between and 1941 .They carried enormous freight trains that weighed about 3,960 tons!They also went up steep slopes in the Rocky Mountains.The locomotive and tender were almost 131 feet long and 16 feet high.They almost weighed 594 tons.They can run up to 80 miles per hour.The last stake was driven in at Promontory,Utah for the Continental railroad, it streched all the way across America. 9.. INDIAN POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC IN INDIA Those who believe in the universality of economic logic and incentives maintain that India’s poverty is due to its political and economic system. Among the British colonies that gained independence in this century, India is the only one to have sustained democracy. But India is not immune to the paradox of democracy. Democracy is the least coercive form of government, but its workings expand government’s coercive powers. The dynamics of democracy, coupled with the adoption of the “Nehruvian model of growth,” left no area of Indian life safe from the government’s visible foot. The government did not abolish private property but micromanaged each and every aspect of production, distribution, and consumption through its now famous license-permit-quota system. The system conferred unlimited power on politicians and bureaucrats. The leaders plundered the country in the guise of developing it. India put an end to the British raj only to usher in the Neta-Babu raj (politician-bureaucrat raj). Here’s an example of the Neta-Babu raj. Cars were declared luxury goods and until recently only two companies were allowed to produce them—in the numbers dictated by the government. They sold the same model for some 40 years, and one could buy it in any color as long as it was white. Justifications for government controls always become self-fulfilling; cars remained a luxury good until recently. One more example of the fatuity of Indian rule: government experts toured several countries to “study” the design and construction of roads. Following the common practice in those countries, they decided to put wider medians lush with grass, shrubs, and trees on highways. Suddenly highways began to suffer serious traffic jams. The abundance of the median had been discovered by cows. The traffic meandered through the hungry cows stomping toward the median and the thirsty ones swaying toward the curbs, where there were water canals. Food and water were at the highway—where else would cows go? This was socialist economic planning with Indian characteristics.As Henry Hazlitt’s fable prophesied, Time Will Run Back. Dwindling foreign exchange reserves and a crumbling economy forced India to liberalize. And liberalize she did. The auto market was opened up. At first, foreign companies could not establish their own manufacturing units, but were allowed to form joint ventures with Indian companies. The memory of the British raj still haunts India; she is wary of foreigners. Initially, foreign companies were allowed to own a 25 percent stake in joint ventures; control had to remain, it was argued, in the hands of Indian partners. Then the ceiling was raised to 40 percent. Sometime later, after much wrangling, it went up to 49 percent. It stayed there for a while, precariously balancing India’s sovereignty and the demands of her economy. India then lost its “sovereignty”; the ceiling was finally raised to 51 percent. Some new models and colors came in. Foreign companies are now allowed to roam the auto market freely—as long as they get permission from the appropriate government ministries. The ministries habitually remind people of their promise to make speedy decisions; all major investment decisions are on the fast track. If they actually expedited requests, would they need to repeatedly promise to do exactly that? The memory of the British raj keeps the Neta-Babu raj alive and well. Some months back—don’t worry about when I’m writing this, nothing gets dated in this ancient civilization—the commerce minister called a press conference and proudly announced the list of items that were on OGL (Open General License). Import of these items no longer required permission from the government. Did the list include information-technology products to move India into the 21st century and to allow its software engineers to compete globally? Not exactly. The list included cosmetics and stockings. Prior to liberalization, someone actually had to get a license to import L’Oréal and L’eggs products. Now with free access to cosmetics and stockings, at least Indian women are allowed to compete with their sisters abroad. This is liberalization with Indian characteristics.Some months back—don’t worry about when I’m writing this, nothing gets dated in this ancient civilization—the commerce minister called a press conference and proudly announced the list of items that were on OGL (Open General License). Import of these items no longer required permission from the government. Did the list include information-technology products to move India into the 21st century and to allow its software engineers to compete globally? Not exactly. The list included cosmetics and stockings. Prior to liberalization, someone actually had to get a license to import L’Oréal and L’eggs products. Now with free access to cosmetics and stockings, at least Indian women are allowed to compete with their sisters abroad. This is liberalization with Indian characteristics.Given such controls and especially the mindset of the Neta-Babu raj, the persistence of India’s poverty, the argument goes, does not need any other explanation. But the question does remain. 10 ABOUT TELEPHONE First steps The telephone was discovered almost by accident. What people thought they were looking for was a way to make the telegraph work faster and more profitably - by sending distinct musical notes or tones simultaneously along the wires with a separate message sent on each frequency. But they soon realized it could also include the human voice - a speaking telegraph. And if you could talk down a wire, wouldn't that be an entirely new and better way of communicating? The individual parts of the telephone were discovered and developed by different people at different times. Someone needed to take all those connections and draw them together into one working instrument. In the end that someone was Alexander Graham Bell - but he only just won the race.Reis's telephone (1860) : the diaphragm man Who really invented the telephone? There are quite a few candidates, and the leading one is a German science teacher called Philip Reis.'Speak against one diaphragm and let each vibration 'make or break' the electric contact. The electric pulsations thereby produced will set the other diaphragm working, and [it then reproduces] the transmitted sound.' His idea was a little shaky. To send sound, the transmitter diaphragm shouldn't completely make or break an electrical contact but instead should vary the current of electricity flowing. His transmitter was a make-and-break device but Reis's receiver (earpiece) used a vibrating rod (a knitting needle in fact) that was magnetised to varying degrees by an electric coil.Reis was let down by his apparatus - it could reproduce continuous musical notes well but produced indistinct speech. His telephone was shown in demonstrations all over Europe, including one in Scotland while Alexander Graham Bell was there, visiting his father. Gray's telephone (1876) : close, but no cigar... Timing is everything. Elisha Gray knew that all too well. On February 14, 1876, the day that Alexander Graham Bell applied for a patent for his version of the telephone, Elisha Gray applied for a caveat - a document indicating that he intended to file his own patent claim within three months. But Gray was a few hours too late - Bell had already filed an actual patent application - and the courts later ruled that this took precedence. Even so, Gray's claim has its merits - Bell first transmitted the sound of a human voice over a wire, using a liquid transmitter of the microphone type previously developed by Gray and unlike any described in Bell's previous patent applications. He also used an electromagnetic metal-diaphragm receiver of the kind built and used publicly by Gray several months earlier. The first telephonic sound (1875) : that elusive twang One summer afternoon, as Bell was working in his workshop in Boston, he heard an almost inaudible twanging sound from his prototype telephone - a sort of crude harmonica with a clock-spring reed, a magnet and a wire. This was connected to a similar device in another room where his assistant Thomas Watson was working. Watson had snapped the reed on one of the instruments and from the other device Bell had heard exactly the same sound. It was the first time in the history of the world that a complex sound had been carried along a wire, and reproduced perfectly at the other end. The first telephone call (1876) : "Mr. Watson, come here, I want you" After hearing their telephone first transmit a sound in June 1875, Bell and Watson spent the next 40 weeks making their telephone actually speak. Finally, on March 10, 1876, Watson heard Bell's voice distinctly in the receiver saying: "Mr Watson, come here, I want you."Watson, who was in another room, dropped the receiver and rushed with wild joy across the hall to tell the glad tidings to Bell. "I can hear you!" he shouted breathlessly. "I can hear the WORDS." America's telegraph companies saw right away that Bell's telephone posed a powerful threat to their businesses and they tried to fight back. The Western Union company called on Thomas Alva Edison to develop an alternative to Bell's invention. The American Speaking Telephone Company in New York (a Western Union subsidiary) then went head-to-head with The Bell Telephone Company of Boston. Within months, Bell sued Western Union for infringement of his patents. Western Union argued that it was Elisha Gray who had invented the telephone - but lost the court battle and had to hand over Edison's telephone rights and withdraw from the telephone business. The Bell company absorbed the American Speaking Telephone Company and re-emerged as the American Bell Telephone Company in April 1880.The first telephones arrive in Britain (1877) : 'greatest by far of all the marvels ‘Sir William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) exhibited Bell's primitive telephone before the British Association for the Advancement of Science assembly at Glasgow in September 1876, describing it as "the greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph". The first pair of practical telephones seen in Great Britain arrived in July 1877, brought here by William Preece, Chief Electrician of the Post Office. A few months later, Bell's 'perfected' type of telephone was exhibited at another meeting of the British Association in Plymouth. Bell forms his company (1877) : but sales are slow ... Within a year of making the first telephone call, Bell and his financial backers - Thomas Sanders and Gardiner G Hubbard - had formed the Bell Telephone Company in the United States. Unsurprisingly, early demand for the telephone was not great and prior to forming their company Bell and his partners had struggled in their attempts to promote the new invention. At one point they even offered to sell the Bell patents to the Western Union Telegraph Company - Elisha Gray's employers - for $100,000. The offer was spurned - a decision the Western Union was soon to regret bitterly. First British long distance calls (1878) : a royal introductionAlexander Graham Bell demonstrated his telephone to Queen Victoria on January 14, 1878, at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. During the demonstration Bell made calls to London, Cowes and Southampton. These were the first publicly witnessed long-distance calls in the UK. 11. ABOUT INDIAN CULTURE The very word ‘culture’ though look like a simple term but apparently has deeper meaning. While to many it appears as the main identity of a nation or race or nationality, to others it is nothing except a means of entertainment. On the other hand there are also others to whom the perfect combination of these two aspects happens to be the most coveted thing under the sun. As a result if you are in search of nation or place where you can get the best emblem of these, you shall have to visit India. To be very precise, there is no other place in the globe where you can find such cultural diversities and for that reason in the recent days the country has become one of the sough-after tourist destinations of traveler. The very word ‘culture’ though look like a simple term but apparently has deeper meaning. While to many it appears as the main identity of a nation or race or nationality, to others it is nothing except a means of entertainment. On the other hand there are also others to whom the perfect combination of these two aspects happens to be the most coveted thing under the sun. As a result if you are in search of nation or place where you can get the best emblem of these, you shall have to visit India. To be very precise, there is no other place in the globe where you can find such cultural diversities and for that reason in the recent days the country has become one of the sough-after tourist destinations of traveler. Now we know that to be cultural and also sophisticated there is the need of inherent aspects. Even in this respect India happens to be much ahead of others. It is due to the fact India had become a home to many visitors and invaders starting from the Aryans invasion during the pre-historic era of India. Thereafter, this mysterious land of India was explored by the Persian and Greek, Scythians, White Huns, Seljuks, Tartars, Mongols, Sassanians, Turks, Mughals and Durranis making successive inroads into the territories beyond Peshawar Valley and Indus and intermixed with the local people to enrich the Indian life and culture. Besides it is also the center of religious and spiritual activities, where the religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism are still worshipped. Due to these various influences there is the presence of a distinct culture through the length and breadth of the country.Now we know that to be cultural and also sophisticated there is the need of inherent aspects. Even in this respect India happens to be much ahead of others. It is due to the fact India had become a home to many visitors and invaders starting from the Aryans invasion during the pre-historic era of India. Thereafter, this mysterious land of India was explored by the Persian and Greek, Scythians, White Huns, Seljuks, Tartars, Mongols, Sassanians, Turks, Mughals and Durranis making successive inroads into the territories beyond Peshawar Valley and Indus and intermixed with the local people to enrich the Indian life and culture. Besides it is also the center of religious and spiritual activities, where the religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism are still worshipped. Due to these various influences there is the presence of a distinct culture through the length and breadth of the country.In the modern age due to the colonial rule of almost two centuries at a stretch there has also been considerable western influence, mainly of the British. This has made the cultural milieu of the country more glorious. 12. About child marriage A forced marriage is a marriage that is performed under duress and without the full and informed consent or free will of both parties. Being under duress includes feeling both physical and emotional pressure. Some victims of forced marriage are tricked into going to another country by their families. Victims fall prey to forced marriage through deception, abduction, coercion, fear, and inducements. A forced marriage may be between children, a child and an adult, or between adults. Forced marriages are not limited to women and girls, as boys and men are also forced to marry against their will. A forced marriage is considered to be domestic violence and an abuse of human rights. Victims of forced marriages often experience physical violence, rape, abduction, false imprisonment and enslavement, sexual abuse, mental and emotional abuse, and at times, murder. 13. ABOUT INDIAN INDEPENDENCE The 61st year of success, peace and progress "we are entering in new millenium with the hope of great opportunity to encash.When we look in to the past, becouse without discuss the past we can't understand how precious independence is. Millions of people of India sacrificed their lives for us. Bapu, Mollana Abdul Kalam Azad, Subhash Chand Bosh, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Mahamana, Sardar Ballabh Bhai, Sarojini Naidu, Chander Shekhar, and many more even we can't count them. Who gave their whole to make there dream,INDIA as a free country, come true. In present we’re just withdrawing their deposit.Yes we are not giving anything to our great nation instead of pollution, problem &poverty. Everything become personal, no one is even ready to think about the nation, its problem,in actual which is our, but the issue of KARGIL once again clarified that whenever BHARAT MATA needs blood for her root,her every son is ready to give the last drop of his blood,the victory of Operation Vijay fill every Indian with the enthusiasm and patriotism. This time all Indian are standing in back of great soldiers who are fighting and with the family of those jawans who become immortal. Every Indian is trying to contribute as much as possible either money or physically. Every Indian are just wishing for their good health who got injury in battle field,but not showed their back to the pakistani millitants.We proud to be an Indian & every Indian must be. Sarae Jahan Se Achaa Hindustan Hamara 14 ABOUT LEATHER BAGS We, at S & D International, are delighted to introduce ourselves as one of the well-known manufacturers and exporters of high quality leather accessories. We offer a wide collection of leather bags including leather handbags, travel bags, briefcases, laptop bags, book bags, gent’s wallets, ladies wallets, credit card wallets, travel wallets, etc. These accessories are designed keeping in mind the latest trends that are followed in the national as well as the international leather manufacturing and exporting market. Started under the supervision of Mr. Sheepshank Sharma, a renowned name in the sphere of manufacturing various types of handicrafts in India, we have been able to offer unswerving leather products and highly satisfying services at competitive prices. Being a professionally managed organisation, we have set high standards of excellence. Our unvarying endeavour has been to provide high quality goods. Over the years we have earned a name of repute and goodwill in the leather industry because of superior quality and prompt delivery of our products. 15. THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE The most striking element of Indian geography is the natural barrier formed by the mountain ranges in the north of India. For India is a continental plate that is crashing into the Asian continental plate. As it does, both continental plates push up the earth where they meet into a forbidding range of mountains. The central mountain range, passing across in the shape of a sword near the northern edge of the Indian subcontinent, is the Great Himalayas. These northern mountains, which are less of a barrier in the west, have naturally isolated India from its neighbors. All along the southern edge of this great mountain wall are rich soils that are generously rained on; even though this region lies in the temperate zone, it is lush and subtropical. To the south are the extensive flood plains of the Indus River in the west and the Ganges in the east. With rich soil renewed every year by river flooding and with generous summer rains, these plains in the north are among the richest agricultural areas in the world. It was here that Indian civilization first arose, in the fertile flood plains adjoining the Indus River. This vast stretch of flood plain has been the home of the great Indian empires as well, the Mauryans and the Guptas. The southern portion of India is a large peninsula with a forbidding mountain range all along the western coast and a large flat plateau called the Deccan in the center of the sub-continent. The eastern coast is flat land and affords many opportunities for harbors; from this area Indian culture had the widest contacts with foreign peoples. The western portion, however, being walled from the sea and hard to reach by land, subsequently became the seat of the powerful empires of the south, such as the Muslim kingdoms. India is one of the most culturally, linguistically, and ethnically diverse regions one can imagine. Four major peoples, distinguished by the languages they speak, make up the population of the region. The majority of the population are Indo-European speaking a variety of languages related to European languages such as Greek, German, or English. Precisely when these peoples arrived is subject to much debate, but they seem to have arrived somewhere between 2000 BC and 1600 BC, and they brought with them their own religion and social system. The bulk of Indian religion and almost all of its literature is Indo-European. Second to the Indo-Europeans, but more ancient in India than the later immigrants, are a people who speak languages from the Dravidian family of languages. While we cannot be certain, the Dravidians were probably the authors of the great Indus River civilizations contemporary with the Mesopotamian civilizations to the west. In addition, the peoples in the northern mountains speak languages related to Chinese, Tibetan, or Mongolian. Finally, the smallest group, but most likely the oldest inhabitants of India, speak languages from the Australoid family, which are the languages spoken by indigenous peoples scattered throughout southeast Asia and Australia. Australoids are still present throughout the mountainous forests of the Deccan, but their traditional way of life, which was still vital only forty years ago, is beginning to die out. 16. ABOUT INDIAN MEN'S WEAR India is the land of varieties. Varieties in culture, languages, dressing etc... it is rightly told that the unity of India lies in diversity. Being the land of diversities, Indian dressing styles also differ from regions to regions and occasions to occasions. Indian ethnic wears range from the traditional dresses to modern designer ethnic wears. Today even in the ramps the ethnic wears create waves. The designs have demand even in foreign countries and Indian ethnic wears could no way be neglected when considering the dressing style of modern world. The best part about these ethnic ensembles is that apart from being fashionable, they are also very comfortable. They look royal and give a very dashing look. Crystal embellishments and exquisite embroideries are finding place on traditional Indian clothes for men. Today men are becoming very fashion conscious especially in urban areas. To adorn their personality there is a fabulous range of traditional clothing encompassing sherwani suit, jodhpuri, kurta pajama, etc... In rural and semi urban areas men are still sticking to Dhotis. When considering the most popular Indian ethnic wear 'kurta and paijama' deserves the topmost place. Silk kurta gives dazzling effects. For the complete ethnic look, attire it with either churidar or simple loose fit pajama. Those who want to look stylish and at the same time wish to maintain that cool dude image too, then attairing kurta with funky jeans will do it. Beautifully designed embroided 'sherwanies' deserve the next place. Sherwanies give an aristocratic look. Phulkari embroidery of Punjab and Zardosi make fantastic designing, which is unique. Nehru collar shirts and band galas are hot and happening.When considering the most popular Indian ethnic wear 'kurta and paijama' deserves the topmost place. Silk kurta gives dazzling effects. For the complete ethnic look, attire it with either churidar or simple loose fit pajama. Those who want to look stylish and at the same time wish to maintain that cool dude image too, then attairing kurta with funky jeans will do it. Beautifully designed embroided 'sherwanies' deserve the next place. Sherwanies give an aristocratic look. Phulkari embroidery of Punjab and Zardosi make fantastic designing, which is unique. Nehru collar shirts and band galas are hot and happening. Even though Indian men prefer western outfits like shirt and pants for the day today use, ethnic wears are inevitable for every special occasions and functions. Here listed are few of the popular Indian ethnic wears. 17. About Georgia Center Jobs The Georgia Center for Nonprofits is devoted to expanding the impact that the nonprofit sector makes on communities and important causes by strengthening organizations, nonprofit professionals, and the nonprofit sector as a whole. With over 1000 organizational members, offices in Atlanta, Savannah, Brunswick and Augusta, programs reaching over 3000 organizations annually, as well as national initiatives like OpportunityKnocks.org that serve thousands more, GCN is the largest and most comprehensive center for nonprofit capacity building in the Southeast and one of the three largest centers in the nation. Primary programs include: professional development and leadership programs; management and strategy consulting; cooperative buying programs and insurance services; comprehensive knowledge-base; networking events; policy representation; industry research and career services. The Nonprofit University is the most comprehensive professional development system currently available for nonprofit employees. Similar to a Corporate University, the Nonprofit University provides a competency based, progressive training system designed to meet the talent development standards demanded by today’s nonprofit industry. The Nonprofit University Manager is a skilled, highly organized, detail oriented individual who is a critical member of our University team which supports the Center’s professional development programs throughout the state. Reporting to the VP of Professional Services, the Nonprofit University Manager has primary responsibility for the coordination and implementation of our ongoing training calendar that includes more than 150 programs a year designed to support the needs of Georgia’s nonprofit sector. Responsibilities include 18. ABOUT INDIAN ECONOMIC Economically, India often seems like two separate countries: village India, supported by primitive agriculture, where tens of millions—one fourth of population—live below the poverty line; and urban India, one of the most heavily industrialized areas in the world, with an increasingly middle-class population. Agriculture (about 55% of the land is arable) makes up some 25% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and employs almost 70% of the Indian people. Vast quantities of rice are grown wherever the land is level and water plentiful; other crops are wheat, pulses, sugarcane, jowar (sorghum), bajra (a cereal), and corn. Cotton, tobacco, oilseeds, and jute are the principal nonfood crops. There are large tea plantations in Assam, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. The opium poppy is also grown, both for the legal pharmaceutical market and the illegal drug trade; cannabis is produced as well. Fragmentation of holdings, outmoded methods of crop production, and delays in acceptance of newer, high-yielding grains were characteristic of Indian agriculture in the past, but since the Green Revolution of the 1970s, significant progress has been made in these areas. Improved irrigation, the introduction of chemical fertilizers, and the use of high-yield strains of rice and wheat have led to record harvests, and India became an net exporter of grain in the early 1980s. The subsistence-level existence of village India, ever threatened by drought, flood, famine, and disease, has been somewhat alleviated by government agricultural modernization efforts, but although India's gross food output has been generally sufficient for the the needs of its enormous population, government price supports and an inadequate distribution system still threaten many impoverished Indians with hunger and starvation. An estimated 40% of the population is too poor to afford adequate nourishment regularly. India has perhaps more cattle per capita than any other country, but their economic value is severely limited by the Hindu prohibition against their slaughter. Goats and sheep are raised in the arid regions of the west and northwest. Water buffalo are raised and there is a large fish catch. India has forested mountain slopes, with stands of oak, pine, sal, teak, ebony, palms, and bamboo, and the cutting of timber is a major rural occupation. Aside from coal, iron, mica, manganese, and ilmenite, in which the country ranks high, India's mineral resources, although large, are not as yet fully exploited. The Chota Nagpur Plateau of S Jharkhand and the hill lands of SW West Bengal, N Orissa, and Chhattisgarh are the most important mining areas; they are the source of coal, iron, mica, and copper. There are workings of magnesite, bauxite, chromite, salt, and gypsum. Despite oil fields in Assam and Gujarat states and the output (since the 1970s) of Bombay High offshore oil fields, India is deficient in petroleum. 19. about Contact lenses Here are some safety tips you should follow if you wear contact lenses.Make sure to: Get regular eye exams to assure the continued health of your eyes. Always have a back-up pair of glasses with a current prescription in the event that you have problems with your contact lenses. Always follow the directions of your eye care professional and all labeling instruction for proper use of contact lenses and lens care products. Always wash your hands before handling contact lenses to reduce the chance of getting an infection. Clean, rinse and air-dry your lens case each time lenses are removed. Contact lens cases can be a source of bacterial growth. Remove the lenses immediately and consult your eye care professional if your eyes become red, irritated, or your vision changes. Ask your eye care professional about wearing glasses or contact lenses during sports activities to minimize your chance of injury. Always ask your eye care professional before using any medicine or using topical eye products, even those you buy without a prescription. Some medicines may affect your vision or irritate your eyes. Apply cosmetics after inserting lenses and remove your lenses before removing makeup. Apply any aerosol products (hairspray, cologne, and deodorant) before inserting lenses. Always inform your employer if you wear contact lenses. Some jobs may require the use of eye protection equipment or may require that you not wear lenses. Follow and save the directions that come with your lenses. If you didn’t get a patient information booklet, request one from your eye care professional or look for one on the manufacturer’s website. Replace contacts as recommended by your eye care professional. Throw away disposable lenses after recommended wearing period. Sleep in daily wear lenses because it may increase your chance of infection or irritation. Purchase contact lenses from gas stations, video stores, record shops, or any other vendor not authorized by law to dispense contact lenses. Contact lenses are medical devices that require a prescription. See Buying Contact Lenses to help you take simple precautions to make your purchase safe and effective. Swap contact lens with another person. Swapping provides a way to transfer germs between people. Contact lenses are individually fitted. Incorrectly fitted lenses may cause permanent eye injury, infection and may potentially lead to blindness. Smoke. Studies show that smokers who wear contact lenses have a higher rate of problems (adverse reactions) than nonsmokers. Swim while wearing contact lenses. There is a risk of eye infection from bacteria in swimming pool water. Put your lenses in your mouth to wet them. Saliva is not a sterile solution. Use tap water, distilled water or any homemade saline solution. Tap and distilled water have been associated with Acanthamoeba keratitis, a corneal infection that is resistant to treatment and cure. Transfer contact lens solutions into smaller travel size containers. This can affect the sterility of the solution which can lead to an eye infection. Transferring solutions into smaller size containers may also leave consumers open to accidentally using a solution not intended for the eyes. Rely on contact lenses to protect your eyes from the sun. Make sure to use sunglasses that block ultraviolet light. For more information, What to look for in a Pair of Sunglasses and Sunglasses It’s Just As Much About Function as Fashion. 20. INDIAN FAMILIES In India, people learn the essential themes of cultural life within the bosom of a family. In most of the country, the basic units of society are the patrilineal family unit and wider kinship groupings. The most widely desired residential unit is the joint family, ideally consisting of three or four patrilineally related generations, all living under one roof, working, eating, worshiping, and cooperating together in mutually beneficial social and economic activities. Patrilineal joint families include men related through the male line, along with their wives and children. Most young women expect to live with their husband's relatives after marriage, but they retain important bonds with their natal families. Despite the continuous and growing impact of urbanization, secularization, and Westernization, the traditional joint household, both in ideal and in practice, remains the primary social force in the lives of most Indians. Loyalty to family is a deeply held ideal for almost everyone. Large families tend to be flexible and well-suited to modern Indian life, especially for the 67 percent of Indians who are farmers or agricultural workers or work in related activities (see Size and Composition of the Workforce, ch. 6). As in most primarily agricultural societies, few individuals can hope to achieve economic security without being part of a cooperating group of kinsmen. The joint family is also common in cities, where kinship ties can be crucial to obtaining scarce jobs or financial assistance. Numerous prominent Indian families, such as the Tatas, Birlas, and Sarabhais, retain joint family arrangements even as they work together to control some of the country's largest financial empires. The joint family is an ancient Indian institution, but it has undergone some change in the late twentieth century. Although several generations living together is the ideal, actual living arrangements vary widely depending on region, social status, and economic circumstance. Many Indians live in joint families that deviate in various ways from the ideal, and many live in nuclear families--a couple with their unmarried children--as is the most common pattern in the West. However, even where the ideal joint family is seldom found (as, for example, in certain regions and among impoverished agricultural laborers and urban squatters), there are often strong networks of kinship ties through which economic assistance and other benefits are obtained. Not infrequently, clusters of relatives live very near each other, easily available to respond to the give and take of kinship obligations. Even when relatives cannot actually live in close proximity, they typically maintain strong bonds of kinship and attempt to provide each other with economic help, emotional support, and other benefits. As joint families grow ever larger, they inevitably divide into smaller units, passing through a predictable cycle over time. The breakup of a joint family into smaller units does not necessarily represent the rejection of the joint family ideal. Rather, it is usually a response to a variety of conditions, including the need for some members to move from village to city, or from one city to another to take advantage of employment opportunities. Splitting of the family is often blamed on quarrelling women--typically, the wives of coresident brothers. Although women's disputes may, in fact, lead to family division, men's disagreements do so as well. Despite cultural ideals of brotherly harmony, adult brothers frequently quarrel over land and other matters, leading them to decide to live under separate roofs and divide their property. Frequently, a large joint family divides after the demise of elderly parents, when there is no longer a single authority figure to hold the family factions together. After division, each new residential unit, in its turn, usually becomes joint when sons of the family marry and bring their wives to live in the family home. 21. The History of Astrology The material presented here originally was an introduction that I wrote to a volume of Project Hindsight translations called "The Record of the Early Sages in Ancient Greek." It consisted of fragments and quotations that either were directly from the oldest sources in Middle Eastern and Western astrology, or were paraphrases of material that *derived from these sources. Since there has recently been posted on alt.astrology9 An article called A Brief Introduction to the History of Astrology" which contains a large number of factual errors. We at Project Hindsight thought it a good idea to present another view. We do not expect everyone to accept the views presented in this paper, but the readers should be aware that these views are close to those shared by the majority of responsible scholars in the history of astrology. (No, I am not calling all who disagree with these views irresponsible, although no doubt some may be.) For those who may not be aware of it, Project Hindsight is a project which aims at nothing less than the translation of the entire corpus of surviving Greek astrology as well as the translation of as much of the Medieval Latin tradition as is practical. We are and will be also doing translations from Hebrew, Sanskrit, and we hope Arabic. At this point I believe that we can say that our collective work represents the largest available body of material on the History of Astrology in English today. Therefore I believe we have some idea of what we are talking about even while recognizing we may have to change our views based on what further research brings forth. We can be contacted at The account which we present here is mostly derived from mainstream academic sources, although we will also present some of our own speculations in areas where there is no clear evidence. We do not present such speculations whimsically but only where internal evidence seems to justify them, and always they will be presented with clear indications that they are speculations. On the other hand, because we have drawn from Western academic sources, one could object that this account does not take into consideration possible alternate views that might be derived, for example, from the study of the astrologies of India. This might be a valid objection, but we would like to assure the reader that we do not accept academic positions on the history of astrology uncritically. We try to accept only what is consistent with the internal evidence of the texts themselves. We also recognize that what we say here is not to be taken as definitive. There is much to be learned about the history of astrology, especially now that it is being carefully studied by those who are not hostile to the subject. Based on the above considerations, it is the thesis of this author that astrology as we know it came into being only once in time and in one place; the place is Mesopotamia (roughly modern Iraq) and the time is to be discussed below. Having said this, another point needs to be made; what we mean by "astrology as we know it" is horoscopic astrology, i.e., astrology the intention of which is the picking of favorable times for doing things, the answering of questions, the forecasting of mundane events, and the analysis of individual destiny, all based on a peculiar instrument, the theme, genesis, or birthchart. And that chart has a particular degree or sign which is marked as the beginning point of analysis. It is usually the degree or sign ascending, although for particular purposes the Sun, Moon, or Lot of Fortune may be used as well. 22.ANNIE BESANT A great woman, patriot and a true fighter, Annie Besant, was born in London on October 1, 1847. She was the daughter of an Irish businessman, William Press Wood and an Irish woman, Emily Mary Roche. Annie was given private education and later in 1867 got married to an Anglican clergyman, named Frank Bes ant. At the age of 23, Annie had two children but the marriage proved to be a failure and they got divorced in 1873. In 1870, Bes ant along with Charles Brad laugh edited the weekly National Reformer. This weekly was dedicated to spread the ideas of birth control, trade unions, women’s right and national education. In 1888, she organized a strike for female workers in a London based company who were working more than they were paid and were highly affected by the factory fumes. The strike proved to be successful and she became more dedicated to women’s sufferings and rights. In 1875, Annie joined the religious movement, Theosophy that was based on Hindu ideas of karma and reincarnation. Completely involved in the Hindu beliefs, she widespread the ideas around the world. India was one country with maximum Hindus and so she visited the country in 1983 to spread the ideas and principles of Theosophy. Later on, she settled down in India with her girl child whom she brought along with her during divorce.During her stay in India she was actively involved in the Indian Nationalist Movement and Home Rule League. Like Gandhi's she was not fully satisfied with non violence, so being a good orator she tried to put influence on Indians by her speeches and write ups. 23. About Britain History Until 1707, this section deals primarily with English history. England and Wales were formally united in 1536. In 1707, when Great Britain was created by the Act of Union between Scotland and England, English history became part of British history. For the early history of Scotland and Wales, see separate articles. See also Ireland; Ireland, Northern; and the tables entitled Rulers of England and Great Britain and Prime Ministers of Great Britain. Although evidence of human habitation in Great Britain dates to 700,000 years ago, ice sheets forced the inhabitants from the island several times, and modern settlement dates only from about 12,000 years ago. Little is known about the earliest modern prehistoric inhabitants of Britain, but the remains of their dolmens and barrows and the great stone circles at Stonehenge and Avebury are evidence of the developed culture of the prehistoric Britons. They had developed a Bronze Age culture by the time the first Celtic invaders (early 5th cent. B.C.) brought their energetic Iron Age culture to Britain. It is believed that Julius Caesar's successful military campaign in Britain in 54 B.C. was aimed at preventing incursions into Gaul from the island. In A.D. 43 the emperor Claudius began the Roman conquest of Britain, establishing bases at present-day London and Colchester. By A.D. 85, Rome controlled Britain south of the Clyde River. There were a number of revolts in the early years of the conquest, the most famous being that of Boadicea. In the 2d cent. A.D., Hadrian's Wall was constructed as a northern defense line. Under the Roman occupation towns developed, and roads were built to ensure the success of the military occupation. These roads were the most lasting Roman achievement in Britain (see Watling Street), long serving as the basic arteries of overland transportation in England. Colchester, Lincoln, and Gloucester were founded by the Romans as colonia, settlements of ex-legionaries. 24. ABOUT ELEPHANT Elephantidae (the elephants) is a family of pachyderm, and the only remaining family in the order Proboscidea in the class Mammalia. Elephantidae has three living species: the African Bush Elephant, the African Forest Elephant (until recently known collectively as the African Elephant), and the Asian Elephant (also known as the Indian Elephant). Other species have become extinct since the last ice age, which ended about 10,000 years ago Elephants are mammals, and the largest land animals alive today. The elephant's gestation period is 22 months, the longest of any land animal. At birth it is common for an elephant calf to weigh 120 kg (265 lb). An elephant may live as long as 70 years, sometimes longer. The largest elephant ever recorded was shot in angola in 1956. It was male and weighed about 12,000 kg (26,400 lb),[1] with a shoulder height of 4.2m, a metre taller than the average male African elephant.[2] The smallest elephants, about the size of a calf or a large pig, were a prehistoric variant that lived on the island of Crete until 5000 BC, possibly 3000 BC. Elephants are increasingly threatened by human intrusion. Between 1970 and 1989, the African elephant population plunged from 1.3 million to about 600,000 in 1989; the current population is estimated to be between 400,000 and 660,000.[3] The elephant is now a protected species worldwide, placing restrictions on capture, domestic use, and trade in products such as ivory. It has long been known that the African and Asian elephants are separate species. African elephants tend to be larger than the Asian species (up to 4 m high and 7500 kg) and have bigger ears. Male and female African elephants have long tusks, while male and female Asian Elephants have shorter tusks, with tusks in females being almost non-existent. African elephants have a dipped back, smooth forehead and two "fingers" at the tip of their trunks, as compared with the Asian species which have an arched back, two humps on the forehead and have only one "finger" at the tip of their trunks There are two populations of African elephants, Savannah and Forest, and recent genetic studies have led to a reclassification of these as separate species, the forest population now being called Loxodonta cyclotis, and the Savannah (or Bush) population termed Loxodonta africana. This reclassification has important implications for conservation, because it means where there were thought to be two small populations of a single endangered species, there may in fact be two separate species, each of which is even more severely endangered. There is also a potential danger in that if the forest elephant is not explicitly listed as an endangered species, poachers and smugglers might thus be able to evade the law forbidding trade in endangered animals and their body parts. The Forest elephant and the Savannah elephant can hybridise successfully, though their preference for different terrains reduces the opportunities to hybridise. Many captive African elephants are probably generic African elephants as the recognition of separate species has occurred relatively recently. Although hybrids between different animal genera are usually impossible, in 1978 at Chester Zoo, an Asian elephant cow gave birth to a hybrid calf sired by an African elephant bull (the old terms are used here as this pre-dates current classifications). The pair had mated several times, but pregnancy was believed to be impossible. "Motty", the resulting hybrid male calf, had an African elephant's cheek, ears (large with pointed lobes) and legs (longer and slimmer), but the toenail numbers, (5 front, 4 hind) and the single trunk finger of an Asian elephant. The wrinkled trunk was like an African elephant. The forehead was sloping with one dome and two smaller domes behind it. The body was African in type, but had an Asian-type centre hump and an African-type rear hump. The calf died of infection 12 days later. It is preserved as a mounted specimen at the British Natural History Museum, London. There are unconfirmed rumours of three other hybrid elephants born in zoos or circuses; all are said to have been deformed and did not survive. 25 ABOUT CANCER Cancer is a disease of the cells in the body. The body is made up from millions of tiny cells. There are many different types of cell in the body, and there are many different types of cancer which arise from different types of cell. What all types of cancer have in common is that the cancer cells are abnormal and multiply 'out of control'. A malignant tumour is a 'lump' or 'growth' of tissue made up from cancer cells which continue to multiply. Malignant tumours can invade into nearby tissues and organs which can cause damage. Malignant tumours may also spread to other parts of the body. This happens if some cells break off from the first (primary) tumour and are carried in the bloodstream or lymph channels to other parts of the body. These small groups of cells may then multiply to form 'secondary' tumours (metastases) in one or more parts of the body. These secondary tumours may then grow, invade and damage nearby tissues, and spread again. Some cancers are more serious than others, some are more easily treated than others (particularly if diagnosed at an early stage), some have a better outlook (prognosis) than others. So, cancer is not just one condition. In each case it is important to know exactly what type of cancer has developed, how large it has become, and whether it has spread. This will enable you to get reliable information on treatment options and outlook. 26. ABOUT RADIO CNBC India, in which Television Eighteen India Ltd has a 49 per cent stake, is looking at the possibility of airing some of its programmes on Mumbai's FM Radio stations."We would prefer to air our programmes on the most popular FM station," Mr Haresh Chawla, Chief Executive officer, CNBC India, said but declined to name it. Currently, CNBC provides a business update on Radio . However, the channel's primary focus is to `complete the repertoire of what a CEO needs today', according to Mr Chawla. "We have achieved a certain depth in our coverage. Now, we are trying to increase the width by including more areas of business," he said. The channel is looking at vertical sectors including pharmaceuticals, manufacturing, and automobiles. In the process of growing from 11 million homes to 16 million homes over the next 12 months, CNBC India is looking at a whole range of programmes. "We have added several new brands and programmes to our existing list. These include health shows, a special programme on women on the move, a show on Kerala emerging as the next IT destination, coverage on Cannes Ad Festival," Mr Chawla said. "Our first phase of taking the channel from the boardroom to the living room is over. Now, we address issues that a CEO looks for beyond his workplace," he said. In the process of integrating the channel with its viewing community, CNBC India has been conducting interactive sessions under the brand name Managing India Brainstorm. The fifth edition of Managing India Brainstorm is being conducted jointly with Sun Microsystems and Wipro Infotech on the issue Barriers to Economic growth. According to Mr Chawla, the channel's true viewer strength programme to programme is difficult to assess in terms of number of viewers primarily because the audience does not figure in TAM's ratings. People meters to assess viewership strength is normally not placed in offices, where most of CNBC viewing takes place, according to Mr Chawla. Besides, most of CNBC's viewership is an upscale audience. 27. ABOUT RAJIV GANDHI Indian politician, prime minister from 1984 (following his mother Indira Gandhi's assassination) to November 1989. As prime minister, he faced growing discontent with his party's elitism and lack of concern for social issues. He was assassinated at an election rally. Elder son of Indira Gandhi and grandson of Nehru, Rajiv Gandhi was born into the Kashmiri Brahmin family that had governed India for all but four years since 1947. He initially displayed little interest in politics and became a pilot with Indian Airlines. But after the death in a plane crash of his brother Sanjay (1946–1980), he was elected to his brother's Amethi parliamentary seat in 1981. In the December 1984 parliamentary elections he won a record majority. His reputation was tarnished by a scandal concerning alleged kickbacks to senior officials from an arms deal with the Swedish munitions firm Bofors and, following his party's defeat in the general election of November 1989, Gandhi was forced to resign as premier. He was killed by a bomb on 21 May in the middle of the 1991 election campaign at a rally near Madras (now Chennai), while attempting to regain office. India's Supreme Court in May 1999 confirmed death sentences on four people involved in the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi. 28. ABOUT POVERTY IN INDIA South Asia is home to the largest number of poor in the world, and India accounts for the largest percentage of the region’s share. The long-term performance of the Indian economy with respect to poverty reduction has been mixed, with poverty actually increasing in the first two decades after India became independent in 1947. However, there has been a sustained reduction in poverty since the 1970s. Figure 1 below shows trends in poverty incidence over four decades, measured by the Head Count Ratio of people under the national poverty line. Rural poverty declined from 55.7 percent in 1974 to 37.4 percent in 1991, while urban poverty fell from almost 48 percent to 33.2 percent during the same period, with the major proportion of this decline occurring between 1978 and 1987 (Appendix 1). Estimated poverty rates increased after the macroeconomic crisis in 1991, though these estimates were based on a relatively smaller sample. The latest estimates for poverty in India, for 1999-2000, are deliberately not included in figure 1 since they are at the center of considerable controversy. According to these estimates, poverty in India had declined to 27.1 percent in rural areas with a national figure of 26 percent. However, the most recent household expenditure survey used a different methodology, resulting in a lack of comparability between the latest estimates and all earlier ones. The debate surrounding the latest poverty estimates in India is quite intense and wide-ranging, though largely arid at this stage given the fundamental lack of comparability between the latest estimates and those before. In a widely cited analysis, using official poverty lines of the Planning Commission, Deaton (2001) finds poverty in India declined from 36.2 percent in 1993-94 to 28.8 percent in 1999-2000. Unfortunately, though, the actual status on poverty in India as of date is ambiguous, with considerable skepticism attached to official figures. Even with the latest questionable estimates, India remains the epicenter of poverty, both within South Asia and in the world, with as many as 259 million people below the national poverty line. In terms of the international poverty line of USD 1 per day (measured at 1993 purchasing power parity exchange rates), there are 358 million poor in India. If instead we use the norm of USD 2 per day, almost 80 percent of India’s vast population is below poverty line, (World Bank (2003)). In terms of the non-income dimensions of poverty too, India continues to display intense poverty with relatively poor indicators of social and human development relevant to the MDGs such as infant and maternal mortality, literacy levels, and gender inequalities, (Table 1). To the extent Poverty Targeted Programs (PTPs) can ameliorate these non-income dimensions of poverty, as is often their stated objective, these data only serve to highlight the importance and necessity of well functioning PTPs in the country. 29. ONLINE DATA ENTRY JOBS With the easy access to computers and internet, data entry work can now be carried out from anyplace in the world. Those who are reluctant to work for a grueling schedule of 9-6 time regimen, Online Data Entry Jobs are for them. You need to search a Companies of high reputation which are offering legitimate online data entry jobs. First, you should embark on the regular job posting boards like: Monster, Hotjobs, and CareerBuilder. Apart from this, you can also browse through your local newspaper and some websites of a companies where you may find the Data Entry Job clicking to you. Hit upon the HR person and make inane inquire from him/her by making a call or sending a mail regarding the vacancy for a job of Online Data Entry. Moreover, you can also check out the freelance websites that offer you with a chance to bid on online data entry jobs. Online data entry is a tremendous way to make money from home and there are many companies who are willing to pay you for the services which are provided by you. Data entry work is easy to do and usually it does not require a lot of experience too. You can come across to an infinite Online Data Entry Jobs without giving out the embarrassing amount of money. Furthermore, you don’t need to pay for your online data entry jobs materials or access to a database. A well written cover letter and resume will take you far away and make you stand out in the midst of the hefty numbers of other candidates who will be applying for the same. You can stumble on a various freelancing websites on the internet where you have to log-in and get yourself registered which is completely free. Registration is the thing which is required as a must because they entail the need of a basic information about you and your address etc. so that they can send you your earned money. You need to put up your profile so that people can judge your abilities before entrusting you some responsibility. Once you have finished off with the registration process, you can bid for the work that is available on the site for Online Data Entry Job. 30. ARTS AND CRAFTS IN INDIA Chemould Gallery, Mumbai wound up its activities at the Jehangir Art Gallery Complex recently and the occasion was celebrated with an exclusive show of the famous Warli painter Jivya Soma Mashe and his son Balu. Featuring their works Amrita Gupta Singh places them in a historical context and says that the tradition and modernity should be mutually inclusive in our times. The origin of the concepts of ‘art’, ‘folk art’, ‘craft’, ‘classical art’, ‘fine art’ and ‘decorative art’ as applied to the Indian situation owes much to the 18th and 19th century geographical discoveries and subsequent colonization. The imposition of western notions of art gave birth to such categorizations, and since then ‘fine art’ and ‘classical art’ began to be used as interchangeable terms, while the decorative, the folk or craft became synonymous. As the usage of these European terminologies which was problematic and conjectural became apparent, Indian equivalents was sought out, hence the terms ‘shastric’ (canonical) or ‘classical’, assumed a higher signification, while ‘prayoga’ (of living practice) or ’desi’ (of locality or region) became equivalent to folk. A broad categorization was developed in the terms of ‘margi’ or ‘desi’ which began to be used as re-invented equivalents of European terms. Originally, these two terminologies were not used as ‘classical’ or ‘folk’, but as ‘sacred’ or ‘profane’, and did not have any hierarchical connotations with regards to the qualities of art; Even though the term ‘margi’ was understood as ‘urban’ in contrast to ‘desi’ which stood for the local and the regional as applied to aspects of early Indian art, they necessarily differentiated the patronage of art –urban or rural- and did not qualify the former to be superior or sophisticated as against the latter as lower or crude. In other words, all creations of visual form (Shilpa) would be sacred or profane or urban or rural but not art and craft, fine and decorative, high or low. Further, in modern terminology, the terms ‘master’ ‘creative’, ‘art’ or ‘individual talent’ came to be used exclusively for urban artists, while the ‘anonymous’, ‘folk’ ‘craft’ and ‘ethnic collectivity’ was attributed to the peasant artist and further being labeled as a ‘producer’ and not a ‘creator’ of art. Doesn’t the urban artist produce or is not craftsmanship essential to his/her art practice? One is largely aware that the influences generated by the folk and tribal art forms, contributed distinct strains to modern art, both in the Indian and Western context, and with research by dedicated art historians and artists, the ‘folk’ artist has attained greater visibility in the urban art scenario, with urban curators and galleries promoting individual narratives from agrarian societies. Modernity is not a fixed paradigm, it is relational and tradition and modernity are mislaid polarities, for one is always found in some measure in the other, and notions of tradition/modernity/contemporaneity need to be mutually inclusive in our times. In this context, it would be worthwhile to trace the career of the important Warli painter, Jivya Soma Mashe who is currently exhibiting with his son, Balu, at Gallery Chemould. This gallery was amongst the first to introduce Warli paintings and Mashe’s work, in 1975, on the cultural map of Mumbai, with the late Bhaskar Kulkarni promoting this art-form. But one also notices a contradiction in the press release; Mashe has been described both as a ‘famed painter’ and a ‘craftsman’, and not too many people attended the opening of this exhibition, despite the fact that Mashe has been represented in significant galleries both in India and abroad, including the Center Pompidou in Paris, and important shows in France and Germany. But this should not be a deterrent in appreciating the works of this master artist, in understanding the metaphorical endeavors that underscores his artistic Selfhood. Traditionally, folk art springs from the fundamentals of life and invocations towards the Nature Spirit and its regenerative functions. It is the arts of a people whose lives are tuned to the rhythm of Nature and its laws of cyclical change, with earth and harvesting, intricately woven with household and fertility rituals, locative in communitarian and ritualistic acts of the clan/tribe. In Warli art, it was the married woman who painted on the walls, known as savashini, and the conventions of painting being handed down from previous generations, while the wedding priestess animated the paintings through song and performance. In this act of collectivity, the modern assumptions of the artistic Self was dissolved with no demarcations between the ‘maker’ and the ‘user’. In this context, how did Mashe build his own individual language, given the feminine context of this tradition? In the 1970’s the introduction of brown paper and white paint revolutionalized the collective aspects of this tradition, from the wall to individual papers. Jivya Soma Mashe was the first male painter from this tradition to chart out a trajectory that not only defined his Selfhood in an awareness of his contemporaneity vis-à-vis his history, but also brought him at par with his urban counterparts. A traumatic childhood of being separated from his family led him to find solace and a form of self-expression through painting; always distanced both on psychological and physical terms from his community (his hut-studio is atop a hill away from the centre of the village), Mashe’s visual field was derived from the farm-lands, with the actual activities providing a repository of images that animated his paper-space, with a bird’s eye view of events and people. Of course in terms of form, his figures pertain to the geometric simplification that characterizes Warli art, but compositionally and in terms of content, there are several radical departures. In conjunction with human, plant, animal and insect life are images of modernity – schools, hospitals, trains, restaurants, and policemen, coalescing his experiential reality with time as a continuous process; Myths and legends co-exist with actual events, evolving dialectical relationships with the Self and the community. On the other hand, the paintings of Mashe’s son, Balu, do not show many departures from those of his father. Would this be a case of the next generation being over-shadowed by the former, or acclimatized to the phenomenon of the demand for Warli paintings in the market, both local and global? If Mashe proposed a new pictorial narrative and a vigorous sensibility within the parameters of his tradition, one would expect that these routes to be re-structured or resources harnessed, in the exploration of another individual sensibility. 31. HISTORY OF INDIA The rock art tradition of India has been traced to about 40,000 years ago in the paleolithic at Bhimbetaka in Central India and other sites. The first permanent settlements in South Asia appeared about 9,000 years ago. This indigenous culture developed into the Indus Valley civilisation(also referred to by some as the Sindhu-Sarasvati Tradition), which was at its height from around 2600 BC to 1900 BC and was one of the earliest civilisations. Around 1500 BC, the influx of Aryan tribes from the northwest of India and to some extent their merger with the earlier inhabitants resulted in the classical Vedic culture. The earlier, more widely known, viewpoint was that this influx was through a sudden and violent invasion. However, recent thinking tends to favor the idea that there may have been a more gradual migration. (See Aryan invasion theory.) Eventually, Aryan culture, language, and religion became predominant in the region. Arab incursions starting in the 8th century and Turkic in the 12th were followed by incursions by European traders beginning in the late 15th century. By subjugating the Mughal empire in the 19th century, the British Empire had assumed political control of virtually all Indian lands. Mostly nonviolent resistance to British colonialism under Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru led to independence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. Pakistan occupied two noncontiguous areas, and a civil war between West and East Pakistan in 1971, in which India eventually intervened, resulted in the sedition of East Pakistan to form the separate nation of Bangladesh. Fundamental concerns in India include the ongoing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive overpopulation, environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic and religious strife, all this despite impressive gains in economic investment and output. 32. ABOUT CHILD LABOUR The term “child labor” has many definitions depending on who is talking about it. Unfortunately, this means that there is no way to give a concrete, rock-solid definition of child labor. The international labour organisation, or the ILO, defines child labor as “some types of work” done by children under the age of 18. The ILO also says that child labor includes full-time work done by children under 15 years of age that prevents them from going to school (getting an education), or that is dangerous to their health. More complete definitions of what child labor I in regard, age restrictions, job types, and exceptions can be found in convention 138, convention 182, and the convention on the rights of the child Other sources and organizations disagree on what child labor is. Some say that it is only hazardous work or work that interferes with a child’s education, while others are broader and include any work done by children working for pay.Some organizations, such as UNICEF, decide to draw a line between child work, which, depending on what definition you use, can consist of light work done by children above the age of 12, and child labor. While there are many different ways to define what child labor is, it is much easier to find things that are NOT instances of child labor. These include washing dishes, and other chores, and supervised apprenticeships. In many cases, child labor consists of children working in horrible conditions, missing school, and wasting away their childhood. While child labor can consist of children working at dangerous jobs, it is by no means restricted to this type of labor There are many other cases where children (people under the age of 18) work in jobs that are NOT hazardous and do not interfere with their education. These jobs allow them to get a sense of responsibility and an opportunity to earn money. Examples of this can be seen many times in the U.S. with children working at restaurants. 33. ABOUT CALL CENTRES India's call centre professionals do not see the industry as a long-term career option, says a study by NFO India, part of NFO WorldGroup, and PeopleEquity Consulting, a Bangalore-based HR consultancy."The inherent nature of the job is monotonous and lacks challenge. Compounding this is the low interest in job content or career growth. That is why there is a constant search for greener pastures," said Manesh Mathew, director, PeopleEquity Consulting. The study says the sentiment is driven by the fact that most people in the industry are reasonably well qualified for the job of an associate or agent.The study involved interviews with 1,000 front-line call centre professionals across 19 leading centres in Bangalore, Chennai, Mumbai and New Delhi.The study gauged perceptions on more than 65 parameters to determine satisfaction, motivation and commitment. The study included expert interviews with HR managers, training professionals, sociologists and psychologists associated with the industry.The study suggests that it is the money alone that keeps call centre professionals going. "The primary factors contributing to this apparent state of 'happiness' is related almost exclusively to money, and, at least for the short term, the opportunity for accelerated growth (read more money), although working for well-known national and global 'names' is also adding to the glamour/delight," it points out.Call centre professionals also showed an inclination to switch jobs even for small monetary gains. "Although happy with the money they are being paid, the permanent source of disgruntlement is the lurking feeling that they probably did not manage the best bargain and thus left wondering whether they are being paid as per industry standards. This is the cause for the high level of attrition..." the study says. Although these employees were fully aware of the unique demands of the job such as peculiar working hours, the need to assume pseudo identities, learning foreign accents and so on they were not quite prepared for the burn-out rates or their inability to handle the "work-life balance". "Thus, today they believe that employers are not doing enough when it comes to 'HR policies to reduce stress at work' or providing 'sufficient holidays to recuperate from stress at work'."The study concluded that helping employees cope with their work-life balance is a more immediate concern area for the employers. 34 .INDIAN ARMY As an officer in the Indian Army, you'll be heir to a glorious heritage, to timeless traditions, blended perfectly with the latest in hi-technology,training techniques and strategic doctrines. The Army is one place where professional growth takes place at every step.NDA cadets are awarded a Bachelor's degree in Arts, Science or Computer Science on completion of training. if you join the technical stream, you will acquire graduate and post-graduate degrees in Engineering. At some of the finest institutes of technology with all expenses taken care of.Selection for the prestigious Defence Services Staff College course results in the award of an M.Sc. in Defence and StrategicStudies.You can also get study leave for two years to further upgrade your professional skills.These growth opportunities are virtually unlimited. You could even get into Research and Development, if you have the aptitude. The Army runs some of the country's most prestigious academies and institutes. These cover a wide range, from Engineering to Medicine and from Administration to Strategy, from Armament Technology to Management.You also have the option of joining the Army and serving as a Commissioned officer for 5 years. At the end of this period you have two options. Either to elect for a Permanent Commission or opt out. Those not selected for Permanent Commission have the option of a 5-year extension, and They can resign at any time during this period A Short Service Commission empowers you with analytical thinking, planning skills, administrative and organisational abilities as well as leadership and managerial skills, which are much in demand in the corporate sector qualities. that will make you aninvaluable asset to any organisation that you choose to join after the Army. 35. HISTORY OF CAR Many people thought of making a self-propelled vehicle centuries before the car was invented. A major problem was finding a was to make it move. Some inventors tried to wind power, but they didn't have very much success. What they needed was an engine. After the steam boat was invented in the 1800's, steam-powered vehicles were being built by engineers. A steam engine had to be big and heavy enough if capable of producing enough power to move the vehicle. Engineers started building their own cars in the United States and in Europe. Without horses, cars started to look more like modern day cars. Cars were ready to rule the world at the end of the nineteenth century.At first people could only buy cars that were built by skilled people. Only rich people could afford them because they were very nice and fancy. Most people only wanted to look at the car, not buy it. To day we power vehicles by diesel. At the beginning of the century, engines ran on steam, gasoline, kerosene, oil, and electricity. In places were coal was cheap, trucks that ran off of steam were popular. for deliveries in towns and cities, electricity was perfect.Reliability was a problem with internal combustion. The firms wanted to use horse and steam engines because they were more reliable than internal combustion. After World War I, army trucks were sold to buyers to use as road transportation. As loads got bigger, pneumatic tires damaged the soft-surfaced roads. Two extra wheels in front for steering and four in the back to spread the weight were usual to see. 36. BUSINESS IN INDIA Indian economy has come into its own and gained impetus in recent years. Carrying out a business in India has become an attractive proposition, not only due to its 8% annual growth rate, but also as a result of a healthy capital market and the growing foreign exchange reserves in the country.There is today no dearth of business opportunities in India with its economy soaring to the fourth largest position in the world in terms of purchasing power. The Indian government has implemented a number of policies for the aid of entrepreneurs in starting a business in India. This together with the strong fundamentals of Indian economy earned the 43rd rank for India in the world economic forum’s GCI position for the years 2006 and 2007.India has emerged as a highly appropriate destination for foreign enterprise. This is primarily due to its intellectual middle class which is emerging gradually, a low wages competitive labour force, rich natural resources, vast geographical terrain, higher disposable incomes and progressive as well as friendly business policies which are also investment friendly. Business etiquette in India has undergone a big transformation with the advent of globalization. Industrial leaders of India are seen to be introducing vast changes in business policies and practices and their implementation to attract international business into India.In a nutshell, India is making a progressive journey from privatization to liberalization where business is concerned.Foreign trade policies in India are committed to attract FDI. The government is making every reasonable effort to sustain and improve the eight percent growth rate. Indian policy makers and industrialists are employed in offering a healthy and robust economic environment for private and public enterprises in order to remain rooted and grow within the country. 37. GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA In terms of geography India is a very diverse country. India geography comprises of a large number of landforms and regions such as mountains, hills, plateaus, plains, deserts, rainforest's, etc and different water bodies like streams, rivers, lakes, seas, bays, etc. other than these India has a coastline, which extends up to 7000km and its peninsular region enters the Indian Ocean while it is surrounded by the Arabian Sea on the southwest and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast. The coastline also gives rise to gulfs such as the gulfs of Ketch and Cam bay to the west. The geography and climate of India are both related to each other in such as way that the climate influences the geography and vice verse. For example, snow capped mountain ranges are seen towards the north of India due to higher temperatures at that latitude and also as a result of the high altitudes of the young fold mountains in this region. Also, areas with higher rainfall tend to have more forest cover with tropical rain forests predominating and the vegetation cover in turn influences the evaporation and humidity, etc, hence affecting rainfall and climate. The geography of ancient India served as a foundation stone for the present day geography, which it has evolved into. India geographically basically consists of a number of landforms and water bodies.Among landforms, mountain ranges such as the Himalayas, Aravalli range, Western Ghats (Sahayadri) and Eastern Ghats, Patkai, Satpuras, Karakoram and Vindhya ranges are present. There are other highlands such as the Deccan plateau, Malwa plateau and Chhotta Nagpur plateau. The major Indian plain is the Indo-Gangetic plain formed by the Ganga, Bhramaputra and Indus rivers and their branches. Other than these plains the Western coastal plains and Eastern coastal plains occupy relatively smaller areas.The desert region of India is the Thar Desert (Great Indian Desert). Lakshwadeep and Andaman and Nicobar islands are the two main offshore islands that form a part of Indian territory. Diu, Majuli, Salcette island, Elephanta and Sriharikota are other important islands of India. The Sundarbans and the Rann of Kutch are the major marshy wetlands of India. Water bodies include rivers such as Indus, Ravi, Jhelum, Chenab, Shuttle, Beas, Ganga, Chambal, Yamuna, Gomti, Bhramaputra, Krishna, Kaveri, Narmada, Tapi, Godavari and Mahanadi, gulfs such as the gulfs of Kutch, Cambay and Mannar, straits such as Palk strait (distinguishing India from Sri Lanka) and the Ten Degree channel (distinguishing the Andaman and Nicobar islands), lakes such as Dal lake, Chilka lake, Kolleru lake, Sambhar lake and Loktak lake. Other than these India is surrounded by the Arabian Sea to the west, Indian Ocean to the south and the Bay of Bengal to the east. 38. About phylogenetic tree A phylogenetic tree is a graphical representation of the evolutionary relationship between taxonomic groups. The term phylogeny refers to the evolution or historical development of a plant or animal species, or even a human tribe or similar group. Taxonomy is the system of classifying plants and animals by grouping them into categories according to their similarities. A phylogenetic tree is a specific type of cladogram where the branch lengths are proportional to the predicted or hypothetical evolutionary time between organisms or sequences. Cladograms are branched diagrams, similar in appearance to family trees, that illustrate patterns of relatedness where the branch lengths are not necessarily proportional to the evolutionary time between related organisms or sequences. Bioinformaticians produce cladograms representing relationships between sequences, either DNA sequences or amino acid sequences. However, cladograms can rely on many types of data to show the relatedness of species. In addition to sequence homology information, comparative embryology, fossil records and comparative anatomy are all examples of the types of data used to classify species into phylogenic taxa. So, it is important to understand that the cladograms generated by bioinformatics tools are primarily based on sequence data alone. Given that, it is also true that sequence relatedness can be very powerful as a predictor of the relatedness of species. Cladograms cannot be considered completely true and accurate descriptions of the evolutionary history of organisms, because in any cladogram there are a number of possible evolutionary pathways that could produce the pattern of relatedness illustrated in the cladogram. The cladogram only illustrates the probability that two organisms, or sequences, are more closely related to each other than to a third organism, it does not necessarily clarify the pathway that created the existing relationships. However, the cladogram can be used in the formulation of new hypotheses and to cast new light on existing data. One of the most ambitious cladograms produced to date can be viewed at the tree of life website, originated by david and wason at the University of Arizona (1) . Please take a moment to view the "Root of the Tree" link on the Tree of Life web site. In this phylogenetic tree, the root is at the far left, termed the root of the cladogram because it is at the base of the cladogram, opposite the branches. Return to the home page and click on the link entitled "Popular Pages", then select "Mammals". At the right side of this cladogram are the terminal nodes, located at the tip of the branches in any cladogram.In the Mammalia cladogram illustrated here, there are six terminal nodes, labeled Triconodonts, Monotremata, Multituberculata, Marsupialia, Palaeoryctoids, and Eutheria.An internal node is a hypothetical common ancestor. The branching points between the root and the terminal nodes are internal nodes. Each internal node is also at the base of a clade, which includes the common ancestral node plus all its descendents. Sample a few more links on the Tree of Life. Be sure to read Darwin's quote on the home page and ponder how difficult it would be to get published in a scientific journal today, if it were necessary to write this beautifully in order to succeed.The Tree of Life is an example of a cladogram illustrating the relationships between taxa, based on the collective evidence from many different fields of biology and bioscience. In contrast, the subject of this tutorial is the construction of cladograms through bioinformatics tools, where the cladograms are based on sequence data. First, use the billogy workbench (2) 2) to build a simple unrooted cladogram. The Workbench will require a password (it's free), but it will grant entrance immediately upon registration of a password. Enter the site, and scroll down the page until the five menu buttons are visible.The "Session Tools" button allows the naming of a session, so that different jobs in progress can be saved under distinct sessions. Select "Session Tools", then select "Start New Session" and click on "Run" to change the name of "Default Session" to a new name. Once the workbench has been exited, the session will remain. Subsequently, clicking on the dot to the left of the session name under the "Session Tools" menu, and then selecting "Resume Session", will recall the session. The Workbench policy at the time of this writing is that old jobs are deleted only when an account has not been accessed for 6 months. Next, select "Protein Tools" from the menu buttons, highlight "Ndjinn Multiple Database Search", and click "Run". In the query box to the right of the term "Contains", type HSP70, for the molecular chaperone, heat shock protein 70 kDa. Scroll down the database list and check the box to the left of the database entitled "PDBFINDER" before hitting the "Search" button. Among the results, find 2BUP, chaperone, and check the box to the left. Then select the menu button entitled "Import sequence(s)". This will import the sequence in fastA format into the open session. Now, under the box of session options, there should be a listing for the 2BUP sequence, with a small box to the left. Notice that the main menu under "Protein Tools" allows more options such as "Delete Protein Sequence", "Copy Protein Sequence" and "Add New Protein Sequences". For now, select the "Ndjinn Multiple Database Search" again. Search the PDBFINDER Database again by scrolling down the page and selecting it, but this time, just search using the PDB ID codes 1HKB, 1ATN and 1DKG for hexokinase, actin and the molecular chaperone DnaK (use the OR operator between each PDB ID code to search for all three in the same search). Import all three sequences simultaneously by checking the box to the left of the PDB ID codes used in the query and clicking on "Import sequence(s)". 1DKG will return three chains, A, B and D. Only chain D is the molecular chaperone, chains A and B are nucleotide exchange factors that co-crystallized with DnaK. Delete chains A and B by checking the box to the left of 1DKG_A and 1DKG_B, highlighting "Delete Protein Sequence", and clicking on "Run". Actin (1ATN) returns two chains, but chain A is the actin, chain D should be deleted in the same manner. Hexokinase (also called phosphotransferase) will return two chains as well. They are both hexokinase, but two identical sequences are not desirable in the cladogram, so delete chain B. Four sequences should remain, 1DKG_D, 1ATN_A, 1HKB_A, and 2BUP_A; check the boxes to the left of each of these. Scroll down the protein tools menu and highlight "CLUSTALW - Multiple Sequence Alignment", then click "Run". The default parameters will be sufficient for our purposes, just select "Submit". When the sequence alignment is returned, scroll down the page and view the multiple alignment. The Workbench automatically returns an unrooted tree with the alignment. 39. about arts and crafts Arts and crafts comprise a whole host of activities and hobbies that are related to making things with one's own hands and skill. These can be sub-divided into handicrafts or "traditional crafts" (doing things the old way) and "the rest". Some crafts have been practised for centuries, while others are modern inventions, or popularisations of crafts which were originally practised in a very small geographic area. Most crafts require a combination of skill, speed, and patience, but they can also be learnt on a more basic level by virtually anyone. Many community centres and schools run evening or day classes and workshops offering to teach basic craft skills in a short period of time. Many of these crafts become extremely popular for brief periods of time (a few months, or a few years), spreading rapidly among the crafting population as everyone emulates the first examples, then their popularity wanes until a later resurgence. Arts and crafts also refers to the Arts and Crafts movement, a late 19th century design reform and social movement. Its proponents were motivated by the ideals of William Morris and John Ruskin, who proposed that in pre-industrial societies, such as the European Middle Ages, people had achieved fulfillment through the creative process of handicrafts. This was held up in contrast to what was perceived to be the alienating effects of industrial labour. These activities are called crafts because originally many of them were professions under the guild system. Adolescents were apprenticed to a master-craftsman, and they refined their skills over a period of years in exchange for low wages. By the time their training was complete, they were well-equipped to set up in trade for themselves, earning their living with the skill that could be traded directly within the community, often for goods and services. The Industrial Revolution and the increasing mechanisation of production processes gradually reduced or eliminated many of the roles professional craftspeople played, and today "crafts" are most commonly seen as a form of hobby or art. 40. About Blood alcohol Blood alcohol (or blood alcohol concentration), often abbreviated BAC, is the concentration of alcohol in blood, measured, by volume, as a percentage. For example, a BAC rating of 0.20 means 1 part per 500 in an individual's blood is alcohol. In many countries, the BAC is measured and reported as milligrams of alcohol per 100 milliliters of blood (mg/100ml). Number of drinks consumed is a poor measure of intoxication, because of variation according to body weight. One drink (unit of alcohol) will increase the average person's BAC to roughly 0.04, but there is much variation according to body weight, gender and body fat percentage. Furthermore, neither BAC nor the number of drinks consumed are necessarily accurate indicators of the level of impairment. Individual alcohol tolerance varies, and can be affected by genetic or nutritional factors, drugs, other degrees of impairment, and long-term heavy drinking. Alcohol content in blood can be directly measured by a hospital laboratory. More commonly, for law enforcement purposes, BAC is estimated from breath ethanol content measured with a machine commonly referred to as a Breathalyzer (even though that is just the trademark of one manufacturer of the devices). For purposes of law enforcement, BAC is used to define intoxication and provides a rough measure of impairment. Although degree of impairment may vary among individuals with the same BAC, the BAC has the advantage of being simpler to measure objectively, and therefore harder to contest, than impairment of driving. Most countries disallow operation of motor vehicles and heavy machinery at prescribed levels of BAC, which vary both by country and by situation. In Sweden, driving with a BAC rate of over 0.02 is illegal. By contrast, the policies of the United States have historically been more liberal; however as of 2004, 47 States and the District of Columbia had adopted a BAC of .08. As of 2005, all states in the US have adopted a BAC of 0.08. In some states, drivers under 21 (the American drinking age) are considered legally impaired at lower levels (perhaps 0.02, or even a mere trace) as part of a zero tolerance policy. Unless a person has developed a high tolerance, a BAC rating of 0.20 represents very serious intoxication (most first-time drinkers would be passed out by about 0.15), and 0.35 represents potentially fatal alcohol poisoning. 0.40 is the accepted LD50, or lethal dose for 50% of adult humans. For a long-time, heavy drinker, those numbers can at least double. In extreme cases, individuals have survived BAC ratings as high as 0.914, but only with medical attention. 41.About china river After the celebrations over reopening border trade at Nathu La, a distinct dampener is the news that China is building a hydroelectric power station in western Tibet.The project involves storing the waters of the Sutlej River as it flows into Himachal Pradesh.China says building of the hydroelectric station on the Sutlej River in Tibet and this will not affect flows to India. But experts in India warn that with the Himalayan lakes drying up, India cannot afford to allow China to dam upstream rivers. "In future it would be much more critical because most of the lakes, streams are in the upper reaches and any construction in this area would have implications for India's security in the long run," China specialist Srikanth Kondapalli said.The hydro power station has been under construction over the last three years in Zenda in Tibet, which is directly opposite Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh. Experts say China has built as many as 13 barrages in the area over the last many years.But the concern is that in the long term, as the demand for water increases in China and India, these barrages could interfere with the flow of waters into India It is not clear if India has taken up the issue with China as the foreign office is refusing to clarify. But experts say it is not too late to do something even now. The 1984 Peace and Tranquility Agreement and the 1986 Confidence Building Agreement are very comprehensive in terms of both sides abiding by norms and regulations. So it is possible for India to push through some kind of understanding over the Sutlej," says Srikanth Kondapalli.China is also reported to be building similar barrages that would dam the Brahmaputra before it enters India in Assam. 42.Types of tobacco Flue-cured is also known as "Bright" and "Virginia" by the world trade. It is used almost entirely in cigarette blends. Some of the heavier leaves may be used in mixtures for pipe smoking. Some English cigarettes are 100% flue-cured.Flue-cured leaf is characterized by a high sugar: nitrogen ratio. This ratio is enhanced by the picking of the leaf in an advanced stage of ripeness, and by the unique curing process which allows certain chemical changes to occur in the leaf. Cured leaves vary from lemon to orange to mahogany in color. The leaves are relatively large with the largest at midstalk. A well grown plant will be topped at a height of 39 to 51 inches with 18-22 harvestable leaves. Yields average around 2200 lbs/A with some in excess of 3000 lbs/A. The leaves are harvested as they mature from the ground up.Flue-cured tobacco is grown in approximately 75 countries from New Zealand to Germany. Major producers in the world are: China, USA, Brazil, India and Zimbabwe. The major exporters are the U.S., Brazil, India and Zimbabwe. Flue-cured is grown in six states in the U.S. - Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. A very small amount is in Alabama.Burley is light air-cured type derived from the White Burley which arose as a mutant on a farm in Ohio in 1864. Burley is used primarily in cigarette blends. Some of the heavier leaf is sued in pipe blends and also for chewing.Cured burley leaf is characterized by low sugar content and a very low sugar to nitrogen ratio (high nicotine). This is enhanced by high N. fertilizer, harvesting at an early stage of senescence, and the air curing process which allows oxidation of any sugars which may have occurred. Burley has a tremendous capacity to absorb flavorings (25% of its own weight vs. 7-8% for flue-cured).Cured leaves vary in color from light tan to reddish and brown. The leaf should be without yellow patches or fringes. Crops in the field are light green in color. This is particularly true for the midrib and stalk which are creamy- white. The leaves are slightly larger than flue-cured and the plants are generally taller. A typical plant is topped at 20-30 leaves. Average yields are 2500-3000 lbs/a and the plants are stalk cut. The leaves are stripped after curing. Burley is produced in around 55 countries but only a small amounts in over 1/2 of these. The main producers and trades are the U.S., Italy, Korea, Brazil, and Mexico. In the U.S. production is in Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Virginia, North Carolina, West Virginia and Missouri 43.indian human rights (women) The year 2000 marked the fifth anniversary of the U.N.'s Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China, an event that heralded respect for women's human rights as a central part of any and all efforts to improve women's status around the globe. Five years later, what gains did women see in government efforts to protect their rights? Activists welcomed important signs of progress, including greater awareness of abuses of women's human rights; stronger international standards for prosecuting violence against women, particularly in conflict situations; and some initial efforts by governments and international actors to implement programs to support women's rights. Still, these steps forward seemed few and far between, especially when contrasted with the scale and scope of ongoing violations of women's most fundamental human rights. One of the most striking developments in the past year-evident in June 2000 in the negotiations at the special sessions of the U.N. General Assembly for the Beijing + 5 Review (Beijing + 5) to assess progress in improving women's status-was how actively some governments were willing to work to thwart recent gains in protecting women's human rights. They set out to master the language of women's human rights while they at the same time sought to undermine the power of the idea and the movement. Perhaps a sign that they had started taking women's rights activists seriously, governments' resistance to further progress on women's human rights took several forms, although most of the obstructionist tactics at the U.N. meeting and elsewhere relied on the age-old strategy of divide and conquer. First, and perhaps most threatening, was the refusal of governments to accept that for women to truly enjoy their human rights, they must be treated with dignity in all aspects of their lives. Instead, government actions reflected the belief that women are not entitled to full enjoyment of their human rights. Hence, while governments condemned some forms of violence against women, they readily excused others and defended laws that denied women their legal rights. In Morocco, for example, a reformist government pledged to pursue programs to measure and respond to violence against women, but allowed proposed reforms to the country's family code-which continues to subject female decision-making to male authority-to languish. In other countries, laws that recognized men as the legal heads of households remained in place, denying women's rights to decide for themselves, freely, whether and whom to marry, whether to work outside the home, or even when to seek medical attention. Laws requiring female obedience or subservience were often key to making women dependent on men and tied to abusive relationships. 44. about human Eye ball Anatomy, The human eyeball, the organ responsible for the sense of sight, is a very complex structure. We use our vision in almost every activity, so the eye is one of the most important organs in the body. How it works Sight begins when light rays from an object enter the eye through the cornea, the clear front “window” of the eyeball. The cornea is actually responsible for about sixty percent of the eyeball’s light-ray-bending capability. The cornea’s refractive power bends the light rays in such a way that they pass freely through the pupil, the size-changing hole in the iris. The iris, the structure that gives the eye color, works like a shutter in a camera. It has the ability to enlarge and shrink, depending on how much light the environment is sending into the eye. After passing through the iris, the light rays strike the eye’s crystalline lens. This clear, flexible structure works much like the lens in a camera – shortening and lengthening its width in order to focus light rays properly. In a normal eye, after exiting the back of the lens, the light rays pass through the vitreous -- a clear, jelly-like substance that fills the globe of the eyeball. The vitreous humor helps the eye hold its spherical shape. Finally, the light rays land and come to a sharp focusing point on the retina. Continuing with our “camera” analogy, the retina’s function is much like the film in a camera. It is responsible for capturing all of the light rays, processing them into light impulses through millions of tiny nerve endings, then sending these light impulses through over a million nerve fibers to the optic nerve. 45. about all types of Snakes This family of snakes is composed of 50 species in two families. They are generally regarded as the most primitive snakes, having a pelvic girdle and vestiglial hind limbs. They have a single lung and oviduct and are well adapted to their burrowing life style. They feed exclusively on small invertebrates such as ant and termite larvae. Leptotyphlopids are oviparous. There are two species of this family in North America. Boidae is a large family of snakes that includes all five of the world's giant snakes. Boids are an ancient family that are characterized by a mixture of modern and primitive traits. They have flexible jaws found in more advanced families but also retain a pelvic girdle, vestigial hind limbs, and many use both lungs. While there are close to one hundred species of boids worldwide, there are only two species of boas found in North America, both in the sub-family Eryciniae. The Colubrid snakes are sometimes refered to as "typical snakes". They comprise the largest family by far with over 2000 species worldwide. Most are medium sized snakes, and all lack a pelvic girdle and have no vestigial hind limbs and whose left lung is either absent or greatly reduced. Most species are considered members of two large subfamilies, Colubrinae and Natricinae which are distinguished by the presence (Natricinae) or absence (Colubrinae) of spines on the lumbar vertebrae. Both subfamilies contain over 200 genera. The Colubrinae subfamily includes two of the genera popular with herpetoculturists, Elaphe and Lampropeltis. The Natricinae subfamily includes water snakes (Nerodia) and garter snakes (Thamnophis) among others. With a family this large, there will always be disagreements about classification, especially regarding the numbers and types of subspecies. This list includes 102 species of Colubrid snakes found in North America. Subspecies are not included in this scheme. Other lists may vary. . 46.about camera lens TYPES OF LENSES Lens Formats;The early CCTV lenses were designed for the 1" format tube camera and many of these are still available on the market. The lens screw thread on these cameras is called a C-mount. In recent years' lenses have been developed for the 2/3," 1/2" and now 1/3" format cameras. For this reason great care must be exercised when selecting a lens for a particular camera. Just as there are four sizes of camera so there are four sizes of lenses and they are not compatible in every combination. A lens designed for a larger format camera may be used on a smaller format but not the reverse. In addition the field of view will not be the same on different size cameras. There is now a further complication in that there is a new range of lenses with what is called the CS-mount. In this case a C-mount lens may be used on a CS-mount camera with an adapter ring but a CS-mount lens can not be used on a C-mount camera. The difference between the two types of mount is the back focal length (not the same as the focal length). This is an optical change to the back focal length and is not a mechanical difference to the lens. The screw thread and shoulder length for each type of mount are identical making it impossible to see the difference except that the overall size of the CS-mount lens is smaller. The main problem is that either type of lens can be screwed onto both types of camera without damage. The result is that if the wrong type is used it will be impossible to focus the camera. Diagram L2 shows the sensor sizes to be used when calculating fields of view and angles of view.A chart is provided at the end of this section showing the relationships between different lenses and camera combinations and the associated angle of view. At this time the majority of lenses with a focal length of 25mm and above are still designed for 1" cameras. This means that special care must be taken when using this long focal length lens on modern cameras. For instance a 25mm 1" lens provides the following approximate angles of view on the different formats. It can be seen therefore that there would be a significant variation in the expected scene content if this fact were overlooked.The focal length of a lens determines the field of view at particular distances. This can either be calculated from the formulae or determined from tables provided by most lens suppliers. Most manufacturers also provide simple to use slide or rotary calculators that compute the lens focal length from the scene size and the object distance. The longer the focal length 47.about Shares Market of India Understand the Trading Basics Guide to Day Trading Trading in shares conjures of image of big money in quick time. Initial Public Offering (IPOs) means the first sale of stock from private company to the public The Company releases its stock for sale on a public market. And getting a piece of hot IPO is not all that easy. So an investor is well advised to keep an eye on the upcoming IPOs or IPO calendar to be able to grab those high yielding issues.If that were so, then would everyone not be a millionaire? Read on, to learn to invest smart and get good returns. Investing in mutual funds has become increasingly popular among investors. Several advantages are offered by mutual funds over investing in individual stocks. Mutual fund shareholders have to pay the transactional costs, which is divided among various shareholders who deal in mutual funds. Mutual funds professionals need to apply their work experience, dedicate their time for research investment options for mutual funds. However, mutual funds are risk-free. If the mutual fund invests primarily in stocks, it is usually subject to the same risks as the stock market. Tata Infrastructure (Equity: Diversified), Kotak Opportunities (Equity: Diversified), UTI Infrastructure (Equity: Diversified), Magnum Contra (Equity: Diversified),HDFC prudence (Hybrid: Equity-oriented), Magnum Balanced (Hybrid: Equity-oriented), Relience Growth (Equity: Diversified) are popular mutual funds in India. their retirement. Rarely, people invest in equities as that is a risky proposition. Hence the need for www.sharesmarket.in to scientifically guide you, step-by-step, invest in Stock Market with assurance. We cover all the financial instruments- IPO, Mutual Fund, Derivatives or Equities- for you. Inflation constantly whittles down your savings. You must account for inflation to maintain and preferably jack up your purchasing power. Sound Investing is required to cover our retirement period. Hence, there is an urgent need to invest judiciously so that we get a steady income for self and family post retirement.Inflation cuts into the value of the money we save by constantly eroding the purchasing value. Hence, the need to find means to offset the inflation.The best possible way to nullify inflation is to invest in shares, debentures, bonds, Bullion market, or real estate. 48.about credit card The importance of credit management;In order to buy a home, get a loan, deal with emergencies, make online & mail-order purchases, or do almost any kind of traveling, you must have access to credit. But merely having it isn’t enough. To begin with, a lower credit rating costs you money with higher interest rates. And over the course of your life, managing credit wisely can be one of the most important factors in achieving your future goals. Fortunately, there are easy ways to stay in control of your credit. Probably the best way is with financial software (which you will need to buy) or Online Banking (which Bank of America offers free to its customers with a credit card or loan account). For example, with Online Banking, you can also schedule automatic payments to ensure you are never late. By staying up-to-date with your credit and using it wisely, you will make accomplishing your financial and personal goals much easier. Free from the burden of too much debt, you will be able to pursue short-term plans while also saving for the future. Your ability to manage credit wisely will help you: • Build wealth instead of paying off debt • Get lower interest rates and better loan terms • Enjoy the freedom to do the things you want to do • Plan a successful financial future Your credit score is the product of a complicated formula, made up of several different elements that provides a measure of your creditworthiness. The higher your credit score, the less risk you present to a lender and, therefore, the more likely they are to let you borrow larger amounts, at better interest rates. The most commonly used credit scores are those provided by Fair Isaac Corporation, called FICO® scores. A FICO score can range from 300 to 850. Fair Isaac provides FICO scores to all 3 of the major credit reporting agencies: Equifax, Experian, and TransUnion. Each agency then adjusts the score based on the specific information it has for you. That means you actually have 3 different FICO scores, although they usually don’t vary too greatly. How to check your credit status Knowing your credit history is the first critical step in managing credit wisely. Your credit report documents your financial behavior over the past several years — how much credit you have, how long you've (you have) had it, and whether or not you pay your bills on time. You need to know what is on your credit report so you can identify any problems and take any actions that might be necessary. Errors can appear in your credit report for many different reasons and, if they do, you need to get them fixed immediately. With identity theft still an unfortunate reality, it’s especially important to catch errors as soon as possible. How to check your credit status Knowing your credit history is the first critical step in managing credit wisely. Your credit report documents your financial behavior over the past several years — how much credit you have, how long you've (you have) had it, and whether or not you pay your bills on time. You need to know what is on your credit report so you can identify any problems and take any actions that might be necessary. Errors can appear in your credit report for many different reasons and, if they do, you need to get them fixed immediately. With identity theft still an unfortunate reality, it’s especially important to catch errors as soon as possible. 49.about human nail The nail plate is the actual nail, and it is composed of translucent keratin. Keratin is made up of compressed hard layers of a protein substance that is produced by the cells of the nail matrix. The pink appearance of the nail comes from the blood vessels located in the nail bed. The nail plate acts as a protective shield, shielding the delicate tissues of the underlying Nail Bed.The nail matrix (nail root) is found beneath the skin under the proximal nail fold. The cells within the nail root produce the nail plate and most of the nail bed. The leading edge of the nail matrix is seen as a white, crescent shaped structure called the lunula. The matrix is in fact the root of the nail. This area is not visible, it is hidden and protected by the Proximinal Nail Fold. The matrix produces keratin cells that make up the nail plate. As more and more cells are produced the older ones are pushed outwards and flattened, all this pushing and flattening results in the cells loosing their original white plumpish appearance. They eventually become transparent and become part of the nail plate.The nail folds protect the matrix. The Proximinal Nail Fold and the Lateral Nail Folds are part of our skin. The skin does not just end there, it in fact folds at the edges and continues beneath. This continuing skin acts as a protective barrier, it in fact protects and seals the matrix against bacteria and dirt that is common within our environment. The cuticle (eponychium) is situated between the skin of the toe and the nail plate, fusing these structures together and providing a waterproof barrier. The cuticle helps to prevent micro-organisms and moisture from harming the nail matrix. The Eponychium is in fact not the true cuticle. The eponychium attaches closely to the nail plate and moves with it as the nail plate grows. This extra growth of eponychium is generally freed and pushed back during a manicure. The eponychium’s function is to act as a barrier seal to stop bacteria, infection from getting to the matrix. We are constantly shedding dead skin cells throughout our daily life, the nail folds are no exception. The skin on the underside of the nail folds sheds constantly as the nail plate grows and rubs (sloughs) against it. These dead skin cells attach to the nail plate and become visible as the nail grows. This attached skin is referred to as the Ptygerium, dead skin cell or the true cuticle. This needs to be removed regularly in order to prevent a build up. 50.about human heart Did you give your friends valentines and little heart-shaped candies on Valentine's Day? Do you ever cross your heart when making a promise that you really, really mean? Or turn on the radio to hear a guy singing about his broken heart?We see and hear about hearts everywhere. A long time ago, people even thought that their emotions came from their hearts, maybe because the heart beats faster when a person is scared or excited. Now we know that emotions come from the brain, and in this case, the brain tells the heart to speed up. So what's the heart up to, then? How does it keep busy? What does it look like? Let's find out.Your heart is really a muscle. It's located a little to the left of the middle of your chest, and it's about the size of your fist. There are lots of muscles all over your body — in your arms, in your legs, in your back, even in your behind.But the heart muscle is special because of what it does. The heart sends blood around your body. The blood provides your body with the oxygen and nutrients it needs. It also carries away waste. Your heart is sort of like a pump, or two pumps in one. The right side of your heart receives blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the heart does the exact opposite: It receives blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the body. We Got the Beat How does the heart beat? Before each beat, your heart fills with blood. Then its muscle contracts to squirt the blood along. When the heart contracts, it squeezes — try squeezing your hand into a fist. That's sort of like what your heart does so it can squirt out the blood. Your heart does this all day and all night, all the time. The heart is one hard worker! Heart Parts;The heart is made up of four different blood-filled areas, and each of these areas is called a chamber. There are two chambers on each side of the heart. One chamber is on the top and one chamber is on the bottom. The two chambers on top are called the atria; (say: ay-tree-uh). If you're talking only about one, call it an atrium. The atria are the chambers that fill with the blood returning to the heart from the body and lungs. The heart has a left atrium and a right atrium. 51.about fixied deposit Deposits which are repayable after less than 6 months are called Short Deposits; interest thereon is calculated on the basis of 365 days in a year for the actual number of days the Short Deposit remains with the Bank. Deposits which are repayable after six months or more are called Fixed Deposits; interest thereon is calculated on the basis of 365 days in a year or actual months KYC ( Know Your Customer) for opening account is applicable for these accounts hence proof of residence and proof of identification will be required alongwith recent photograph of the depositor/s Need to open Savings Bank Accounts It is desirable that the Term Deposit account holders also maintain Savings Bank accounts with the Bank so as to avoid delay in disbursement of interest on term deposits or inconvenience to the depositor to call on the Branch to collect interest. For the benefit and convenience, may we suggest that you open a Savings Bank Account with us and give us instructions to credit thereto, half yearly interest on this Term Deposit Receipt. Your interest will earn interest.'' Minimum amount Rs.1 lac for SDR and Rs.10,000/- for FDR in Metro and Urban Branches and Rs.5000/- in Rural and Semi urban branches in FDR/SDR .Minimum amount per single deposit for period of 7days to 14 days will be Rs.1lac. Minimum Amount criteria will not be applicable to Subsidy kept under GOVT Sponsored Schemes, Margin Money, earnest money and court attached/ordered deposits Payment of Interest: (Subject to applicable TDS) Interest will be paid half yearly on 1st October and on 1st April and in case these dates falls on holidays then on the next working day Payment and Renewal of Deposits Before Maturity Depositors may request repayment of their deposits before maturity. Repayment of term deposits before maturity is permissible in terms of the directives of the Reserve Bank of India issued from time to time. In terms of the directives, the provision regarding premature withdrawal of deposits is as follows:

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